Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation

Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation 1. INTRODUCTION Surfactants are surface active compound that reduce the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants are organic compound that contain both hydrophobic (head part of the surfactant) and hydrophilic (tail part of the surfactant) moieties. Thus surfactant contains both water insoluble i.e. water repellent group as well as water soluble i.e. water loving group. Biosurfactants are also surface active compound like chemical surfactants but unlike the chemical surfactant, biosurfactant are synthesized by microbes like bacteria, fungi and yeast. Biosurfactants comprise the properties of dropping surface tension, stabilizing emulsions, promoting foaming and are usually non-toxic and biodegradable. Recently interest in biosurfactant has increased because of its diversity, flexibility in operation, and more eco-friendly then chemical surfactant (BS Saharan et al., 2011; Eduardo J. gudiËÅ"na et al., 2011). Biochemical processes of oil degradation carried out by microbes involves several type of enzymatic reactions driven by oxygenase, dehydrogenase and hydroxylase (Hamamura N et al., 2008). These enzymes cause aliphatic and aromatic hydroxidation, oxidative deamination, hydrolysis and other biochemical transformation of original oil substance leading to formation of large number of intermediate degradation products. However, a major limitation of microbial degradation of crude oil is its hyydrophobicity. Biosurfactant produced by oil degrading bacteria facilitate the uptake of crude oil hydrocarbons by bacterial cells and also have low toxicity and high biodegradability (Batista SB et al., 2006). So, crude oil degrading bacteria with the ability to produce biosurfactant is widely recommended for fast degradation of crude oil. (Kumar M et al., 2006). Furthermore possibility of their production on large scale, selectivity, performance under intense conditions and their future applications in environmental fortification also these have been increasingly attracting the attention of the scientific and industrial community. These molecules have a potential to be used in a variety of industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, humectants, food preservative and detergents (BS Saharan et al., 2011). But the production of biosurfactant on industry level is still challenge because of using high costly synthetic media for microbial growth. Biosurfactants are classified on the basis of diversity in their structure and their microbial origin. They contain a hydrophilic group, that contain an acid, peptide cations, or anions, mono-, di- or polysaccharides and a hydrophobic group of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon chains or fatty acids. Biosurfactants produced by a variety of microorganisms mainly bacteria, fungi and yeasts are diverse in chemical composition and their nature and the amount depend on the type of microbes producing a particular biosurfactant. 1.1 Classification of Biosurfactant: Biosurfactants are classified in to two major group one is low molecular weight surface active agent call biosurfactant and high molecular weight substance called bio-emulsifier that is especially used as enhancement of emulsification of hydrocarbon. Further these two major group is divided in to six major group known as glycolipids, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins-lipopeptides, phospholipids, hydroxylated and cross linked fatty acids. (a) Glycolipids: Mostly biosurfactants are glycolipds. They are lipids with a carbohydrate attached. The connection is by means of either an ether or ester group. Among the glycolipids, the best known are rhamnolipids sophorolipids and trehalolipids. Fig 1: Glycolipid (b) Rhamnolipids: Rhamnolipids is a group of biosurfactant that studied extensively. These are produced by many species of Pseudomonas and have tremendous antimicrobial activity against several common microorganisms, which is an essential property of all cosmetics due to the daily contamination of the product by the human touch (Lourith N et al., 2009). Rhamnolipids is a type of glycolipid biosurfactant that contain either a one or two molecule of ÃŽ ²-hydroxydecanoic acid. In 1999 the structure of rhamnolipid produced by P. aeruginosa on mannitol and nepthalene by liquid chromotography was compared. And it was found that for mannitol the most common rhamnolipid contained two rhamnoes and two 3-hydroxydecaonic acid and whereas rhamnolipid produced by nepthalene contained two rhamnoes and one 3-hydroxydecaonic acid. Fig 2: Structure of mono and di rhamnolipid (c) Trehalolipids: It is another type of glycolipids that containing trehalose hydrophobic moieties. Such type of biosurfactant structure is diverse in hydrophobic moieties, varying from short fatty acid to long fatty acid chain. In general it is observed that the bacteria showing Gram’s positive produces Trehalolipids biosurfactant (Anderson RJ et al, 1983). Fig 3: Structure of Trehalose lipid (d) Sophorolipids: Such glycolipids are synthesized by yeast; these are the complex mixture of both free acid and lactone form. The acidic SL contain fatty acid as tail where as SL lactonic are formed by the esterification between carboxylic end of the fatty acid and 4† of the sophorose end. Generally lactonic SL has better surface tension lowering property whereas the acidic SL have better potential to form foam and solubility properties (Nuneza A. et al., 2003). Fig 4: Structure of Sophorolipid lactonized and acid Form. 1.2 Lipopeptides and lipoproteins: Lipopeptide biosurfactants are cyclic compounds and they are mostly isolated from Bacillus and Pseudomonas type bacteria Lipopeptides mainly consist of hydrophilic peptides, generally they consist 7 and 10 amino acids long, linked to a hydrophobic fatty acid structure. Bacillus cyclic lipopeptides consist of three major groups known as the surfactin, iturin and fengycin families. Surfactin is the most commonly studied and it contains 7 amino acid cyclic sequences connected to a C13–C16 fatty acid (Kakinuma A. et al.,1969). Fig 5: Structure of aminolipopetide Fig 6: Structure of cyclic aminolipopetide 1.3 Polymeric Biosurfactants: Polymeric biosurfactant are high weight molecular biopolymers which consist polysaccharides, proteins, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins or mixture of theses biopolymers. A wide variety of microbes produces polymer biosurfactant. Polymer biosurfactant exhibits properties like high viscosity, tensile strength, and resistance to shear. The following are example of different type of polymeric biosurfactant. 1.4 Advantages and Uses of Biosurfactant: The unique properties of biosurfactant (Microbial Surface Active Agents) such as low toxicity, relative ease of preparation and widespread applicability, make it different from chemical synthetic surfactant and now it has become recently an important product of biotechnology for industrial and medical applications and they allow to replacement of chemical synthetic surfactant. They can be used as emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers, wetting agents, spreading agents, foaming agents, functional food ingredients and detergents in various industrial sectors such as, Petroleum and Petrochemicals, Organic Chemicals, Foods and Beverages, Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals, Mining and Metallurgy, Agrochemicals and Fertilizers, Environmental Control and Management, and many others. Table 1. Classification of biosurfactants and their use in remediation of heavy metal and hydrocarbon contaminated sites. (Magdalena Pacwa-PÅ‚ociniczak et al., 2011) Stabilization of the hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Dispersion of limestone in water Stabilization of hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Alasan Acinetobacter radioresistens KA-53 Biodispersan Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2 Liposan Candida lipolytica Mannoprotein Saccharomyces cerevisiae There are many advantages of biosurfactant as compare to chemically synthesized surfactants. Some of those are: Biodegradability: Easy to biodegradable as compare to the chemical surfactant (Kosari N, 1992). Low toxicity Biocompatibility and digestibility, that allows their application in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food seasonings. Easily availability of raw material: The raw material need for production of biosurfactant are easily available, biosurfactant producing microorganism can be isolated from the industrial waste like oil contaminated soil, petrol pump spilled, and also can be isolated from municipal waste. Use in environmental control: Biosurfactants can be efficiently used in handling industrial emulsions, control of oil spills, biodegradation and lowering the toxicity of industrial discharges and in bioremediation of polluted soil. Specificity in their action, since biosurfactant has specific organic functional group and often specific in their action. This is particularly used in lowering the toxicity of the pollutant, used in enhancing the emulsification property, used as raw material in cosmetic, medicinal and foodstuff applications. 1.5 Crude oil spills The crude oil spills are one of the main environmental pollutants. Their abundance and persistence in several polluted environmental areas have been reported (Mohammed M. A., 2004). Oil spillage may be caused by natural disasters like earthquakes in the sea surface or due to accidental leaks during exploration, refining, storage and transportation. The causes can be numerous but the consequences are the same. In case of crude oil, the different types such as heavy or light crude oil can affect the clean-up procedures. Crude oil spreads very rapidly on the sea surface and after a short period of time the thickness of the oil film can be at least 1mm. It is therefore necessary to prevent the spreading to reach the shoreline. Once it reaches the shoreline, it contaminates the soil and cause a great damage to the soil ecosystem as well. Some of the largest oil spills that have taken place all over the world are at Iran, Iraq, Persian Gulf, Uzbekistan, Kuwait, United States, Gulf of Mexico, Pakistan and even in India. The most recent oil spill in India is the spill of ONGC Trunk oil pipeline burst, at Uran, Mumbai on 21st January 2011. Around 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled in Mumbai coast that spread around 4 sq km area. Many such disasters reported one seeping oil from a sinking ship. In August 2010, oil spill at Gopalpur beach Orissa in April 2010 causing the death of many Ridley turtles that breed there during that period. It hence becomes a necessity to clean up this oil in order to save the marine life. Clean-up and recovery of hydrocarbons from an oil spill is difficult and the strategies for cleaning up an oil spill are greatly affected by a variety of factors such as the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water body, and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. A number of approaches an d technologies have been developed for spreading of oil spills in marine shorelines and freshwater environments. Many mechanical and chemical methods can be applied to clean-up the spills (Zhu et al., 2001). Fig 7: Crude oil spill 1.6 Methods applied in cleaning of oil spills 1.6.1 Physical methods Booms. Skimmers. Manual removal (Wiping). Mechanical removal. Washing. Sediment relocation or Surface washing. Tilling. In-situ burning 1.6.2 Chemical methods Dispersants. Demulsifies. Solidifiers. Surface film chemicals. Although various conventional cleaning methods such as physical methods like the first response selection, rarely achieve complete cleanup of oil spills. According to the Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress, 1991), current mechanical methods typically recover no more than 10-15 percent of the oil after a major spill. Chemical methods are faster in action but they are toxic to the biota present in the spill environment. Bio-surfactants can be used for cleaning of crude oil spillage. 1.7 Hydrocarbons of Crude oil: Oils are further categorized into three broad groups, according to their molecular weight. General statements can be made for each of the three categories namely light weight, medium weight, and heavy weight components (Scholz et al., 1999). Crude oils are composed of various combinations of these three categories with the following general characteristics. 1.7.1 Light Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C1 to C10 which are smaller molecules with few numbers of atoms. They are characterized by high volatility, readily dissolvable and evaporate and leave little or no residue because of their short residence time. Many of these components (e.g., benzene, and toluene) are thought to be more bioavailable to animals by primary exposure route (respiratory system). Being highly flammable and readily inhaled, and therefore are of concern for human health and safety. 1.7.2 Medium Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C11 to C22 which have complex molecules. It has low rate of evaporation and dissolves very slowly that take several days with some residue remaining. Not as bioavailable as lower weight components, it is less likely to affect aquatic animals. Its primary exposure route is respiratory system and gets readily absorbed through skin. 1.7.3 Heavy Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms more than C23. It has the longest residence time with very little loss due to evaporation or dissolution. It can cause chronic effect through smothering as residue in the water column and sediments (tarballs, etc). Its primary exposure route is direct topical contact. Some heavy weight components contain carcinogens that are absorbed through the skin. Its risk of exposure is increased due to long residence time, probability of contact, and adsorption property of the oil components. Table 2: List of oil spill incidents since 2010 1.8 Oil Spills and Their Effects: Recently on 21st January 2011, ONGC trunk oil pipeline burst at Uran, Mumbai. About 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled and spread around 4 sq km area. On 7th August, 2010 a foreign cargo ship, collided with another vessel about 10 km off Mumbai harbor, that spilled the oil in spite of the hectic effect made by Navy and Coast Guard to contain the leak, around 700 tons of fuel oil and 28 tons of diesel oil was spilled. Thousands of eggs of the endangered Olive Ridley Turtles on the beach adjoining river Rushikulya in Ganjam district have failed to hatch this year because of the recent 924 tons of furnace oil spill at a nearby port. Rushikulya Sea turtle protection committee have found that the hatching of the eggs, which ended last week, have gone down by 40 to 50 percent this year as the eggs, numbering thousands, got spoiled after the leaked oil soaked the nesting site on the beach. A number of incidents have been reported happening every year. Some of the oil spill incidents ar e listed in the Table 2. Oil spills kill wildlife and damage the ecosystem that can last for generations by forcing changes in reproduction and compromising complex food webs. Oil spill damage to the waterways of birds and animals, destroys the animal immune systems, interrupt breeding and fouling of breeding grounds. Besides, they thin bird and turtle egg shells and also damage the fish larvae, causing deformities. They cause damage to sea grass beds and other shelter/feeding areas, tainting of algae, which perform a vital role in waterway ecosystems. Due to oil spill on soil the insects and worms living in it are killed due to hydrocarbon toxicity, lack of oxygen supply and it reduce the pH of the soil. This affects the fertility of soil and its productivity in terms of the growth of plants (Wokocha G.A., 2011). As a result soil eco system is getting disturbed and it effects the plant growth. Soil oil also contaminates ground water and it causes illness to the human beings and animals when consumed.

Contributions Of Community Pharmacies Health And Social Care Essay

In the United Kingdom, the parts of community pharmaceuticss to public wellness have non been clearly defined. As a effect they are non routinely integrated into the work of the wider public wellness household. Whilst it is ill-defined why this should be, it has been acknowledged that they have the potency of playing a important function in protecting and bettering population wellness, placing forms of disease and supplying wellness and societal surveillance information to public wellness organic structures ( Department of Health 2005a ; RPSGB 2003 ) . The function of the community pharmaceutics in public wellness remains to be to the full exploited, even though they have been progressively involved in wellness betterment activities such as services aimed at smoking surcease, sexual wellness and substance abuse services, etc, as laid out in the contractual model for community pharmaceuticss ( DOH 2005b ) . An of import country of public wellness where community pharmaceuticss have been least involved is in wellness protection, and they have the potencies of complementing present attempts in surveillance of infective diseases and supplying support to affected population during an eruption. In Wales, wellness protection is one of the cardinal duties of the Public Health Wales ( PHW ) Health Protection unit and the Catching Disease Surveillance Centre ( CDSC ) is the arm responsible for surveillance of infective diseases, support for outbreak probes and proviso of wellness intelligence and applied research ( NPHS Wales, 2007 ) . Soon, there are no enterprises or policies to officially prosecute the wellness protection unit of the Public Health Wales and community pharmaceuticss to work together on wellness protection whereby everyday intelligence and surveillance information are exchanged ( NPHS Wales, 2007 ) . These surveillances information could be in signifier of supervising tendencies of nonprescription ( OTC ) gross revenues informations ( e.g anti-diarrhoeal, anti-fungal, cold and cough redresss, etc. ) to observe eruptions, and routinely supplying community pharmaceuticss with eruptions and surveillance studies to enable them supply support to affected population. Policy Framework Analysis: In order to accomplish a successful policy alteration, a prospective policy analysis of the issue at manus ( Analysis for policy ) , which is iterative and dynamic will be undertaken ( Buse. 2005 ) . The diagram below high spots the different facets of the policy analysis and is explained in inside informations under the policy headings – content, context, histrions and procedure.Need for alteration ( Policy Content ) :There is a demand to germinate the functions of the wellness protection units and CDSC of PHW to include everyday communicating with community pharmaceuticss in order to better their effectivity in surveillance and sensing of infective diseases eruptions and protection of population wellness in Wales. This formal battle of community pharmaceuticss with the PHW Health Protection unit is of import as a consequence of increasing cognition and consciousness of its possible benefits. During the eruption of E. Coli O157 in South Wales in September 2005 which affected about 150 people ( with 1 decease recorded ) , the pharmaceutics squad of the so NPHS Wales noted anecdotal studies that community druggists had been consulted with respects to the sale of anti-diarrhoeal readyings ( Walker 2009 ) . Besides during the eruption of viral pinkeye in South Wales in August 2006, GPs and community pharmaceuticss were advised against the usage of ophthalmic Chloromycetin and there was grounds of public wellness protection by those pharmaceuticss that acted on the advice ( Hinchliffe and Walker 2008 ) . These are arrows to the fact that community pharmaceuticss can play a important function in public wellness protection.Policy Context ;Public or authorities policy has been described as a determination that a authorities decides or decides non to do ( Dye 2001 ) . In the current political context in Wales since degeneration in 1999, the WAG has adopted the â€Å" citizens â⠂¬Ëœ theoretical account † of wellness service bringing where the populace have rights and duties in both having wellness services, and guaranting handiness of the services to everyone ( Welsh Assembly Government 2004 ; Beecham Report 2006 ) . Therefore, the current policy environment in Wales can be said to be pluralist and the major contextual factors asking a demand for alteration at this point in clip are structural and endogenous in nature. These include the acknowledgment by the UK Department of Health ( 2005a ) that community pharmaceuticss are untapped resources in protecting public wellness and the committednesss of the Welsh Assembly Government in its One Wales a progressive docket for the authorities of Wales, which aims to protect the wellness of the population with one of its wellness precedences of beef uping public wellness services ( Welsh Assembly Government 2007 ) . Furthermore, improved electronic connectivity in community pharmaceuticss ( RPSGB, 2008 ) will let for easy and speedy transmittal and reception of informations and information for surveillance activities. Last, addition in the cognition that early sensing and control of infective diseases outbreaks in the population through an efficient surveillance system significantly reduces its load on the wellness of the population and saves costs of intervention and infirmary admittance, therefore bettering public assurance in the authorities.Policy Stakeholders ( Actors ) :This measure involves placing the policy histrions and understanding their place and involvements with regard to the issue of affecting community pharmaceuticss in PHW ‘s wellness protection ( Buse, 2005 ) . This is of import in order to accomplish alteration and guarantee its successful execution and sustainability. Welsh Assembly Government: Is a cardinal stakeholder in doing and implementing the policy by presenting the policy instrument in the signifier of an official statement and/or ordinance. The undermentioned histrions in the WAG include: The Department of Health and Social Services: oversees all wellness related maps in Wales including â€Å" reding the Welsh Assembly Government in puting policies and schemes for wellness and societal attention in Wales † ( Welsh Assembly Government, 2010a ) and is cardinal in decision-making with respects to O.K.ing the policy and presenting the policy instrument on behalf of the authorities. The Department of Public Health and Health Professions ( DPHHP ) : headed by the Chief Medical Officer for Wales, reports to the Department of Health and Social Services and has the aim of protecting the wellness of the peoples and being prepared for wellness exigencies ( WAG 2010b ) . Chief Health Professionals: including the main medical officer, main pharmaceutical advisor and others who provide expert cognition in public wellness and related specializer countries to the WAG and other external organic structures to protect and better public wellness. Public Health Wales ( PHW ) : In October 2009, the new NHS trust established by the WAG became operational, integrating the maps and services provided by the NPHS Wales, Wales Centre for Health ( WCfH ) , WCISU and the Screening Services Wales. PHW is to supply resources, advice and information to the WAG, and all Wales NHS Trusts, Local Health boards, etc, enabling them to transport out their statutory public Health maps ( Public Health Wales 2009 ) . Its Health protection unit has as one of its strategic ends to cut down the impact of infective diseases and exigencies in the population and delivers this through its Health Protection Teams and the Centre for Communicable Diseases Surveillance ( CCDS ) among others ( NPHS Wales, 2007 ) . The PHW is a cardinal histrion in accomplishing successful policy alterations since they will be straight involved in the execution of the policy. Public Health Consultants in Wales: including Advisers in Catching Diseases and Control would be portion of the policy alteration procedure in obtaining experts inputs in their assorted specialised Fieldss, and most particularly pharmaceutical public wellness advisers would be chief advocators and innovators of the policy alteration. Community Pharmacy Wales ( CPW ) : is the local pattern forum for Wales and is possibly the most important stakeholder as community pharmaceuticss are at the other terminal of the spectrum for execution and the policy alteration affects them straight and the manner they operate. CPW represents the involvements of the over 700 community pharmaceuticss in Wales and are recognized by the WAG as the negociating organic structure on behalf of pharmaceutics contractors, taking the function from the PSNC ‘s Welsh commission following degeneration ( CPW, [ no day of the month ] ) . Nation-wide Chain Pharmacy Stores: These are peculiarly of import stakeholders since their operations span across the different UK states and are likely to hold an integrated IT system for staff and information direction. Their positions are of import since they represent a big ball of community pharmaceuticss, for illustration in Wales of the 714 community pharmaceuticss, 91 are owned by Boots ( Walker 2009 ) . Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ( RPSGB ) : is the regulative and professional organic structure for druggists and pharmaceutics technicians in the Britain with primary aims â€Å" to take, modulate, develop and stand for the profession of pharmaceutics † ( RPSGB, 2010a ) . Since more than half of the over 2300 druggists in Wales work in the community ( RPSGB, 2010b ) , the RPSGB is an of import histrion in stand foring their involvements and in guaranting that the policy is successfully made and implemented. The Welsh Centre for Pharmacy Professional Education ( WCPPE ) : is an operational unit of the Welsh School of pharmaceutics, Cardiff University and provides go oning professional development chances ( CPD ) for the pharmaceutics squad in Wales ( WCPPE, 2010 ) . The WCPPE is of import as a policy histrion in fashioning and supplying a CPD programme for community druggists in Wales as a portion of the policy execution procedure in guaranting its success and continuity/sustainability. Faculty of Public Health ( FPH ) : in the UK is the organic structure that sets criterions for public wellness specializers and purposes to advance promotions in public wellness cognition and keep the highest degree of professional criterions ( FPH, 2010 ) . The FPH is a major advocator for public wellness in the UK and hammering an effectual partnership with it in pursing this policy alteration is important for puting the policy on the docket and guaranting that it remains there up till its execution and rating. National Pharmacy Association ( NPA ) : is the trade association for community pharmaceuticss in the UK and aims to stand for, support and protect their involvements ( NPA, 2010 ) . The NPA is a potentially of import histrion in the policy procedure since their place can do or impair the execution of the policy. The Media: Is an first-class agencies of acquiring the issue on the docket and in puting the ball turn overing for treatments among different histrions ( Buse et al 2005 ) . The advocates of the policy alteration may use a sponsored intelligence docudrama particularly foregrounding past effects of eruptions ( including human deaths ) and ways in which the community pharmaceuticss could hold provided of import surveillance information to the PHW and the populace and intervened to supply support to affected population.Other Stakeholders will include:Welsh Medicines Resource Centre ( WeMeReC ) Local Health Boards in Wales Board of Community Health Council in Wales The Media The Welsh Office of Research and Development for Heath and Social Care ( WORD ) As a portion of the policy analysis model, after placing the political histrions, measuring their political powers and measuring their involvements, places and committednesss ( Buse et al, 2005 ) , an abridged stakeholder analysis and sum-up of their power distribution is shown in Table 1 below.Table 1: Stakeholder Analysis ( Varvasovszky and Brugha, ( 2000 ) :SupportAgainst ( Opposition )ImpersonalWelsh Assembly Government ( WAG ) Community Pharmacy Wales ( CPW ) Welsh Centre for Pharmacy Professional Education ( WCPPE ) Public Health Wales ( PHW ) National Pharmacy Association ( NPA ) Media Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ( RPSGB ) RPSGB WeMeReC Faculty of Public Health ( FPH ) Nation-wide Pharmacy Stores, e.g. Boots Pharmacy Board of Community Health Council in Wales Advisers of Public Health in Wales Local Health Boards in Wales MediaPolicy ProcedureDespite the pluralist nature of the political system in Wales, Luke ‘s first dimension of power may non capture the full scope of relationships that exists, while his 2nd dimension of power may be utile in explicating the docket puting procedure ( Buse et al. 2005 ) since different policy histrions all have changing powers to protect their involvements. Policy alteration here would use the incrementalist attack which would affect â€Å" puddling through † the policy position quo which will include a new function for the Public Health Wales ( i.e. everyday communicating of surveillance information with community pharmaceuticss ) and community pharmaceuticss ( i.e. supplying OTC gross revenues informations to PHW ) . The four-staged ( additive ) policy procedure – docket scene, policy preparation, policy execution and policy rating, provides a utile heuristic device ( Stages Heuristics ) which is utile in explicating the policy procedure, even though it is a cyclical procedure in world ( Hogwood and Gunn 1984 ) . Agenda Setting: Introducing this policy alteration onto the WAG docket may non be achieved following the â€Å" politics-as-usual † attack where the WAG comes to find and acknowledge that there is a major issue to be addressed ( Buse et al. 2005 ) . The Hall ‘s theoretical account ( 1975 ) cited in Buse et Al ( 2005 ) will be of import in conveying the issue to the attending of the WAG since its legitimacy, feasibleness and support can be deemed as high and pursued by the histrions: Legitimacy ; Expanding the function of community pharmaceuticss to complement current attempts at public wellness protection and affecting them to supply support to affected population after an eruption is a legitimate end in footings of presenting the WAG aim of wellness protection. It is besides underpinned by several studies ( DOH 2005a, RPSGB 2003 ) recommending more engagement of community pharmaceuticss in wellness protection. Feasibility ; Achieving the policy alteration will supply a platform at maximising available resources for wellness protection as the policy alteration will non necessitate any major extra fiscal and human resources in footings of chance costs. It involves spread outing the duties of the PHW wellness protection squads to routinely pass oning with community pharmaceuticss in their local governments and analyzing informations obtained from them as portion of surveillance. It is extremely executable, maximizes finite human and fiscal resources of authorities. Support ; A possible challenge in the policy procedure is acquiring equal support particularly from community pharmaceuticss and their different organic structures. Since its non portion of the contractual model of community pharmaceuticss and no commercial wagess, community pharmaceuticss may look non concerted. However, this challenge can be addressed by equal protagonism and lobbying with the pharmaceutics groups ( CPW, NPA, RPSGB ) and guaranting that support is obtained. From the authorities position, support from the public wellness advisers and civil retainers ( curate, managers, etc. ) would be sought after by the pharmaceutical public wellness advisers and spouses recommending for the alteration. Public Health Consultants in Wales, in peculiar pharmaceutical public wellness advisers would be the title-holder of the policy alteration by first accepting the demand for alteration and propagating the message particularly through the media. Health Protection Unit of the PHW who are a portion of the policy implementers would be involved in this early phase to guarantee their support, while other parts of the PHW including the Public Health Strategic Management Group would be carried along. Community pharmaceuticss on the other manus may turn out hard ab initio, but strong protagonism and usage of political resources available particularly through the RPSGB would guarantee cooperation. Advocacy by druggists and advisers working within PHW to the RPSGB, CPW and NPA and the usage of informal meetings and formal unit of ammunition table treatments between these stakeholders will guarantee support. The support of the FPH would be required since it plays a important function in protagonism for public wellness policy alteration ( FPH, 2010 ) .Policy FormulationOnce the issue gets on the authorities docket, a series of complex activities takes topographic point within the policy web ( procedure and histrions ) , with the histrions exerting their political powers and resources to prosecute their involvements in the policy. The usage of public audience is a tool often used by the WAG ( Strategic Policy Unit ) in policy devising procedures, which would convey the policy web together to consider and supply proficient information on the policy. At this phase and based on dialogues, the concluding inside informations and accommodations of the policy alteration would be made before it is formulated. Policy preparation takes topographic point by passage of the policy through an appropriate policy instrument which in this instance may be done through the issue of an official policy statement/circular by the Minister of Health and Social Services. This policy so flows down the hierarchy of the civil service and NHS to the PHW which so implements it. Community pharmacies either through the CPW, RPSGB and/or NPA will besides publish policy statements to all its members to move as appropriate with the PHW. Further reappraisals and treatments at a ulterior clip during and after ratings have been carried out may so take to farther dialogue and determination on whether or non to include the policy in the community pharmaceutics contractual model.Policy ExecutionExecution is the most of import facet of the policy procedure since it is where alteration is expected to happen. Using the â€Å" Bottom-Up † attack would affect the implementers ; in this instance the PHW Health Protection Unit and community pharmaceuticss ( CPW ) , to interact in the political procedure of execution ( Buse, 2005 ) . Conflicts are bound to originate during execution but it is of import in placing challenges and supplying feedbacks for rating and for alteration of attack. The â€Å" Top-down † attack to policy execution would be used to sketch the administrative and managerial facets including sketching ends and schemes, and delegating quantitative marks to guarantee that the policy bringing can be monitored and evaluated to place countries for betterment. Execution of the policy may merely bring forth a fringy incremental alteration which is easy to supervise and requires really small human and fiscal resources. Successful execution is an iterative procedure which and requires regular inputs and active engagement of the members of the policy web. This can be achieved through a regular stakeholders ‘ forum for treatments, suggestions and ratings. One other of import facet of the execution is to include wellness protection as a Continuing Professional Development ( CPD ) programme for community pharmaceuticss. This facet would affect the RPSGB and WCPPE, guaranting sustainability of the alteration and can be achieved through active protagonism.Policy EvaluationEvaluation in a policy procedure is iterative and may be done at any phase of the policy procedure in order to measure the degrees of advancement that has been made. Formative rating of the policy will be carried out during the policy docket scene, preparation and execution phases to modify and develop the concluding policy in order to suit the positions of differing powerful histrions. Summational ratings on the other manus would be focussed to mensurate the degree of impacts of early sensing of infective diseases outbreak achieved by the policy alteration over a period of clip ( Buse et al, 2005 ) . Evaluation of the policy may include the usage of epidemiological surveies such as ecological and instance control surveies to measure the effectivity of observing eruptions of infective diseases as a consequence of affecting community pharmaceuticss in surveillance in comparing with other countries of the UK. It involves the aggregation and usage of qualitative and quantitative informations to measure the effectivity of the policy alteration. The usage of the Donabedian ‘s Structure-Process-Outcome Model to gestate the policy rating is described in table 2 below.Donabedian Framework for Policy EvaluationStructure/Input:Administrative/Managerial ComponentsNumber of PHW Health Protection Teams and Community Pharmacies involvedUse of IT resourcesResultEarly sensing of eruptions by community pharmaceuticss taking to reduced load of infective diseases Reduced burden/morbidity of infective diseases in the populationProcess/Activities:Routine ( Weekly or Monthly ) communicating and exchange of wellness protection studies and infection diseases surveillance informations Actions taken by community pharmaceuticss to back up affected population Whether or non Continuing Professional Development ( CPD ) on wellness protection has been introduced to community pharmaceuticssEnd productSum of eruptions detected through usage of community pharmaceuticss surveillance informations Sum of outbreak instances handled by community pharmaceuticss ( referrals and actions taken ) Number of community pharmaceuticss taking the CPD on wellness protectionDrumhead

New Article Reveals the Low Down on All about Me Essay and Why You Must Take Action Today

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Strictly Ballroom - Perspectives on Belonging - 1637 Words

Certain texts raise certain perspectives about belonging, whether it be belonging to particular groups through conformity to rules, or belong to a place where you find inspiration to express your own sense of individuality. The film Strictly Ballroom, directed by Baz Luhrmann portrays many different perspectives in regards to belonging. The opening scenes of Strictly Ballroom explore aspects of not belonging and non-acceptance. To belong to the world of ballroom dancing means sacrificing self-expression and individual identity. Scott Hastings represents the individual who repels against the group as it threatens to consume him. From this we understand that some people may have to sacrifice their own true identity to belong to a certain†¦show more content†¦Barry Fife is depicted dominant over the rest of the Ballroom community. Luhrmann portrays Barry’s dominance through visual techniques. Barry is shown in the centre of the Ballroom Dancing officials during competiti ons. This central positioning is a clear indication of supremacy over even the officials of the Ballroom Dancing Federation. Luhrmann uses low angles of Barry as he is first presented to the audience. These low angles position us to feel Barry Fife’s dominated position in the Ballroom Dancing Federation as he looks down onto us. Both visual techniques of Barry Fife assert his position as leader of the Ballroom Dancing Federation and emphasise his strong believe in the conformity to the strict rules and regulations of the Ballroom Dancing Community. From the Ballroom Dancing community we come to recognize that certain groups find a sense of belonging through similar dress and appearance, conformity to certain rules and regulations and all under a hierarchy of leaders. Although, this sense of belonging is not for everyone. People within the group may gain a strong sense of identity and feelings of importance. Strictly Ballroom shows that the desire to establish identity often revolves around rebellion and breaking free from the group. This involves courage and the development of self. To truly belong means being able to be ourselves. Within the Ballroom Dancing community, there is a clear indication that there are people who do notShow MoreRelatedStrictly Ballroom Essay1891 Words   |  8 PagesTo belong to anyone else, one does not have to give up his or her values or independence by conforming. This is shown through the texts of the film, ‘Strictly Ballroom’ directed by Baz Luhrmann and the children’s picture book, ‘The Red Tree’ written and illustrated by Shaun Tan. In ‘Strictly Ballroom’ characters, scenes and techniques such as dialogue, costume, lighting, and marginalization are used to depict that to belong to anyone else, one does not have to give up his or her values or independenceRead MoreEnglish Notes Belonging – Strictly B allroom (1992) Essay3082 Words   |  13 PagesEnglish Notes Belonging – Strictly Ballroom (1992) 1. Introduction to Belonging Strictly Ballroom | * 1 core text + 2 related texts of your own choosing * Link them by concept NOT content (i.e. don’t link by setting, character or plot/events) * Belonging to a group can establish your sense of identity e.g.: * Scott Hastings – included * Mr Hastings (Doug) – excluded * Mrs Hastings (Shirley) – included * Fran – excluded * Concept: ‘the struggleRead MoreTotal Quality Management (Tqm) in Hospitality Industry: a Study of the Application of Tqm in  a Hotels  Engineering Department and Its  Effects on  Hotel Performance18578 Words   |  75 Pagesmeeting. Therefore, for banquet events, engineers not only review the written instructions in the event orders, they also need to consider the background of participants and the nature of the activity to predict the guest needs and pre-adjust the ballroom room temperature. This is to reduce the complaint for an uncomfortable temperature at the arrival of guests. Another example for being proactive is the catching up of technology to meet the guest needs. Interviewees advised that the rapid advancementRead More65 Successful Harvard Business School Application Essays 2nd Edition 147256 Words   |  190 Pagesmissed the opportunity to devise the plan that jump..started their involvement. This experience also highlighted leadership strengths that balance this weakness. Most important, I am a good listener. Openness to others input allows me a broader perspective for analyzing problems and leads to more thorough solutions. Furthermore, I pour my heart into everything I do. My enthusiasm enables me to work well in teams, motivate others, and create a fun and sup.. portive team environment. analysis This